Measurement Systems of Cosmodromes
The determination of the test trajectory for carrier rockets and strategic ballistic missiles such as Topol-M, Bulava, and Albatros was performed using the ground-based Command and Measurement Complex (CMC) of the cosmodrome. The CMC consists of measurement points (MPs) located throughout the former USSR.
Adjusting mast of the Vega system, Mirny
Command and Measurement Complexes of Cosmodromes
To conduct trajectory measurements, MPs were equipped with various measurement systems (MS). A single MP housed one or more MS.
Cosmodrome command and measurement complexes
Classification of Measurement Systems and Means
For trajectory measurements on the IPs there were various measuring systems (IP). One IP was located on one IP
Classification of measuring systems and tools
These IPs were divided into types in accordance with physical features and the principle of measurements. ICs for signal pretreatment, antenna control, and control during flight tests were equipped with one or more computers. For example, such ISs as Vega-NO (KO) and Katafot had their own local area networks. Measuring systems have an external interface for outputting information to a telephone or telegraph communication line. The issuance of information in the communication line was carried out using various protocols, frames of measuring, service, signal and other information, in different encodings due to the fact that there was no specific standard for measuring means.
Radio Engineering System "Vega": The Most Accurate
The most accurate measurement system turned out to be the Vega radio system. Vega operates on the Doppler principle, measuring the phase difference of a radio signal transmitted from an onboard transceiver and received by multiple ground antennas spaced far apart. By analyzing these phase shifts, it can precisely determine the missile’s position. Target acquisition and missile control are carried out by a direction-finding subsystem.
Herman Baranovsky – Chief Designer of the Vega System
Herman Alekseevich Baranovsky, the Chief Designer of the Vega system, was a Ukrainian and a native of Podolia, one of the leading specialists in radio-technical measurements. He stood as an equal among the greats—Korolev, Yangel, Chelomey, and Glushko. Under his leadership, a unique trajectory measurement system was created, providing ultra-precise control over the flight of ballistic missiles.
Ukrainian Andrii Nikolaiev, the head of the software development sector at the research institute, played a crucial role in the integration of the system while working under Baranovsky's leadership. He was responsible for developing and implementing software solutions that connected the measurement systems into a unified ground-based measurement complex, ensuring the coordinated operation of all Vega system components.
The contribution of these Ukrainian specialists to the development of the Soviet radio-technical and space industry is invaluable—their innovations laid the foundation for the further advancement of rocket and space navigation and control systems.
If Ukrainian Sergey Korolev sent rockets into space, then Ukrainian Herman Baranovsky tracked their every movement, measuring trajectories, analyzing deviations, and refining accuracy to perfection. His work remained in the shadows, but without it, there would be no confidence in the success of each launch. He created a system that became a radio-technical microscope for trajectories, detecting the slightest deviations in rocket movement, measuring coordinates with ultimate precision, and allowing engineers to see the invisible. This is his legacy in science and technology.
Chief Designer of the "Vega" System: German Alekseevich Baranovsky
Main Characteristics of the "Vega-NO(KO)" Measurement System
The "Vega" system is one of the most complex and advanced trajectory measurement systems developed in the 20th century. Its creation required significant resources and technological solutions, which were successfully implemented in the Soviet Union.
The main characteristics of the measuring system "Vega-NO (KO)" [2]
Vega Systems in Russia
Here are some photos of this system that will give a general idea of the grandeur of the plan, embodied in reality by the staff of the Kharkov Research Institute of Radio Engineering Measurements.
Chief Designer of the "Vega" System: German Alekseevich Baranovsky
Central adjustment mast of the Vega system, Norilsk
The central building (technical position) of the Vega system (Norilsk) from a bird's eye view and in the distance the Small Cross of the Vega system (Norilsk)
Adjusting mast and a small cross of the Vega system, Norilsk
Technical position of the Vega system in winter (Norilsk)
The Vega system, Norilsk. A staircase through a cable corridor is provided to understand the scale of the structure. Staircase through cable corridor in summer and winter
Norilsk Vega on Google Map. Small cross and technical position. Remote outposts did not hit due to the large scale of the map [3]
The general view of the topology of the Vega system can be seen entirely only from space. The city of Norilsk. Small cross and technical position are hidden behind lilac lines [4]
Vega system Vorkuta in summer
The hardware room of the Vega system
Radio Direction Finder of the Vega System
ES-1045 Computer (Soviet Analog of IBM System/360) – A Computing Machine of the Vega System
Magnetic Tape Drives of the Vega System
After the modernization, the Vega system was equipped with IBM-compatible computers running the QNX operating system, which expanded its computing capabilities.
Vega Systems of the USSR (then Russia): Southern (red) and Northern (green) Tracking Routes, Kapustin Yar Test Range (yellow)
Kama Radar System
A significant role in trajectory measurements was performed by the Kama radar station (radar). The Kama system is produced in different versions, the most common are Kama-A and Kama-N [5]. The Kama radar is used both as a part of measuring complexes and in autonomous operation. "Kama-A" and "Kama-N" are distinguished by the time of their entry into the troops. Kama-A uses a telegraph communication line, while Kama-N uses a telephone line. The work is done by the airborne transponder. If the Vega on-board transponder occupies a volume of 2 liters, then the Kama has significantly less. However, the accuracy of the Kama radar is lower. As a rule, the Kama radar operates on space rocket carriers, and the Vega on strategic missiles.
"Kama-A" Radar Antenna
Radio Equipment of the 'Kama-N' Radar
Optical Measurement Systems
Optical measuring systems are cinema theodolites and cinema telescopes, ballistic cameras, etc., which are widely used in conducting external trajectory measurements. Optical systems began to be used for this purpose much earlier than radio systems. The high-precision optical-electronic theodolite system (OES) "Viola" (1977–1988) is designed to measure the spatial coordinates of rockets during various flight experiments. OES "Viola" contains from three to six theodolite stations, combined into a single measuring complex command station. The main measuring channel of the theodolite station is a movie channel with a survey frequency of 1; 5; 10; 25 Hz. Range of action of a laser range finder - 25000 m; the measurement error of the "Viola" UES is: by angular measurements - 5 angle / s, by range - 1 m.
Optical-electronic theodolite system "Viola"
There are other ECOs, for example:
- A mobile infrared theodolite "Velor-M", of the tracking type, refers to short-range devices and allows for the automatic monitoring and measurement of the angular coordinates of luminous objects at short range.
- The infrared theodolite "Velor-IT", designed to determine the motion parameters of rockets by measuring the angular coordinates of an object based on its thermal radiation, as well as to monitor the object through a television system.
- The cinema theodolite "Wismutin", designed to measure the angular coordinates of missiles. The film theodolite is equipped with a movie camera, an infrared coordinator, automatic and semi-automatic guidance systems, automatic focusing, and automatic exposure control.
Test Intensity
Test Intensity of the Vega System
Between 1986 and 1991, the Vega system was actively used for precision measurements during the testing of new missile complexes. The intensity of these tests was so high that rocket launches were conducted almost every week.
The tests took place under challenging conditions, requiring high-precision control and the seamless operation of measurement complexes. In some cases, multiple test launches were performed on the same day, while the majority of measurement sessions were carried out at night, when conditions for radio-technical observations were most favorable.
One of the key challenges at that time was the delivery of magnetic tapes and punched tapes containing measurement data from tracking systems. These data carriers were often transported by Ministry of Defense aircraft with a delay of 2 to 3 days, preventing the incorporation of previous test results into the preparation for the next launch. Given the high intensity of testing, this posed a serious limitation that necessitated the automation of data collection and trajectory processing.
The 'Sbor' System and Its Information Concentrator: Engineering the Backbone of Missile Test Communication
The high intensity of tests of strategic launch vehicles and ballistic missiles required the creation of an information system that would enable the collection of trajectory data, improve the efficiency of test preparation, and manage heterogeneous measuring systems deployed across the USSR. Such information systems were developed at the Kharkov Research Institute of Radio Engineering Measurements (NIIRI).
Key Conclusions of Herman Baranovsky About His Career, the System He Worked In, and the Price Engineers Paid for Scientific Progress, as Described in His Book "Pereydena Nyva"
- Bureaucracy and political pressure hindered engineers' work. Developments were carried out under strict secrecy, making it difficult to exchange information and coordinate efforts between specialists. Engineers often could not even discuss their projects with colleagues, leading to duplicated work, mistakes, and inefficiency.
- Fear of leadership and political repression was a daily reality. Any mistake could lead to serious consequences—from losing a position to being persecuted. Many talented engineers had to work under constant pressure, which negatively affected scientific breakthroughs.
- Control by the KGB and ideological structures slowed scientific progress. Testing and development of new technologies were always monitored by "special observers" who oversaw the process but had no technical expertise. The interference of political structures often delayed decision-making and hindered scientific advancement.
- Excessive bureaucracy and lack of flexibility slowed innovation. Due to a complex approval system, engineers were unable to make quick adjustments, and the process of approving changes could take months or even years.
- The Soviet system provided unique opportunities but destroyed individual initiative. The state allocated enormous resources for science, but in return, it demanded absolute obedience. Personal ideas and initiatives from engineers were often suppressed in a system where success was measured not by breakthroughs but by fulfilling government plans.
- Most developers remained unrecognized. Their ideas and inventions became the foundation for future achievements, yet authorship often remained anonymous. Many were never acknowledged in history, despite their invaluable contributions to scientific progress.
- Despite all difficulties, the generation of Soviet engineers made the impossible possible. Working under strict control and pressure, they developed technologies that ensured the success of the space and missile program. Their efforts, though often unseen, became the foundation for global scientific achievements.